Case Studies for Honeybee Breeding Research: Beekeeping Status in Zimbabwe

1. Location, climate and agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in the southern part of Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers (Fig. 1). It shares borders with four countries: South Africa, Zambia, Botswana and Mozambique. Zimbabwe has over 39 million hectares of land, with 33.3 million hectares used for agriculture. Agriculture is one of the most important sectors, contributing about 15~20% of the country’s economy and providing a livelihood for about 70% of the population. The country has highly productive land, which makes agriculture a success by providing food, employment, and raw materials for other sectors of the economy (Runganga and Mhaka, 2023).

Fig. 1.

Location of Zimbabwe in Southern Africa (photos extracted from google images).

Zimbabwe is predominantly semi-arid and has high agro-ecological diversity, requiring proper scientific planning for agricultural land use and environmental management to maintain a healthy ecosystem (Manatsa et al., 2020). There are four seasons in Zimbabwe, with different temperatures and rainfall patterns. The summer season (wet season) ranges from November to March, with temperatures ranging from 22~30°C characterized by heavy rainfall and vast vegetation. This is the main farming season of Zimbabwe for major crops such as maize, sorghum and beans. Autumn season starts from March to early May, having milder temperatures (20~25°C) and low rainfall. Winter season is from late May to August and it marks the beginning of the dry season, with cool temperatures between 10-20°C, which may drop to 5°C at night. Spring season is the main flowering season which spans from September to October and has temperatures of 20~25°C (Bailey et al., 2021).

Zimbabwe has seven agro-ecological zones named I, IIa, IIb, III, IV, Va, and Vb (Fig. 2) and are divided based on the rainfall and temperatures in the different regions of the country. Transitioning from zones I to Vb, the average annual rainfall decreases significantly as well as the probability of receiving at least 500 mm of rainfall. Zone I, which receives the highest amount of rainfall, occupies only 1.5% of the country, and receives an average of 1,250 mm per year. This region is suitable for farming maize, soy beans, macadamia nuts, tea, coffee and fruit trees such as apples and bananas. Zone II has an average rainfall of about 975 mm and commonly grown crops are maize, tobacco, groundnuts, cotton, barley and sorghum (Manatsa et al., 2020). Zone III has lower annual rainfall between 650~800 mm and crops such as soybean, groundnuts, cotton, sunflower and certain maize varieties can be grown in this region, although supplementary irrigation may be necessary in some cases. Annual rainfall of Zone IV is between 450 to 650 mm and drought resistant crops such as sorghum, finger millet, pearl millet, water melons and cowpeas are common in the region. Zone V (both Va and Vb) is the driest, with an average below 450 mm and only drought resistant crops can be grown although farming activity is very low. Zones IV and V hold the largest part in the country, occupying 29.1% and 38.2% respectively (Manatsa et al., 2020). The varying weather conditions in the different zones result in different kinds of plants flourishing in each zone, which also affects the beekeeping industry. The agriculture sector in Zimbabwe has been heavily affected over the past few years by sudden climate changes, which have resulted in droughts and cyclones in the country (Runganga and Mhaka, 2023). Since honey bees are also excellent pollinators, intensive beekeeping may boost the agronomy and horticulture branches in Zimbabwe.

Fig. 2.

Zoning according to the agro-ecological environment in Zimbabwe (Manatsa et al., 2020).

2. The history of beekeeping in Zimbabwe

Beekeeping in Zimbabwe dates back to the 18^th century and has been practiced for centuries, with evidence shown in rock paintings in Matopo hills. Traditional methods were used, where honey was harvested from caves, cliffs, hollow trees, and logs (Nyatsande et al., 2014). Smoke from poisonous trees was used to kill the bee colonies and harvest the honey. Since this method resulted in fewer colonies each time honey was harvested, the quantity of honey decreased. This led to the introduction of newer methods of beekeeping, such as modifying the African drum, using bark hives, making holes in tree logs (Fig. 3A), and using clay pots (Fig. 3B) and buckets. However, these methods made it difficult to inspect the colonies because once the comb was removed, it could not be returned into the hive. Furthermore, it was difficult to prevent swarming or replace the queen using this method, which led to low productivity and poor quality honey.

Fig. 3.

Different types of hives used in Zimbabwe. (A) Log hive (Mambondiyani, 2023); (B) Clay pot hive (Kasangaki et al., 2014); (C) Frames extracted from the Kenyan Top Bar hive (Matiashe, 2024); (D) Langstroth hives (by Bianza Mbavha at an apiary in Harare, Zimbabwe).

Modern methods of beekeeping were introduced in the early 1960s and proved to be very productive and sustainable. The first recognized apiculturist in Zimbabwe was Mrs. Papadopoulo, who was appointed on the 11th of July in 1962. She then trained one thousand farmers, who produced 650 tonnes of honey per year. The Greek basket-hive was also introduced in 1962, resulting in increased honey productivity as it allowed for inspection of the colonies. The government later introduced other beehives such as the Kenyan Top Bar (Fig. 3C) and Langstroth hives (Fig. 3D). Since then, Zimbabwe has witnessed a steady adoption of modern beehives, although most beekeepers still use traditional hives (Nyatsande et al., 2014).

3. Current status of beekeeping in Zimbabwe

Beekeeping in Zimbabwe is practiced by both men and women, including the youth. Women have been integral to the sectors of production and economic activity in Zimbabwe, making valuable contributions in several agricultural sectors, including apiculture (Mwandifura et al., 2023). There are three common types of beehives currently used in Zimbabwe which are the Traditional, Kenyan Top Bar and the Langstroth hives. The majority of beekeepers in Zimbabwe still use traditional hives (78%), which include tree bark, log, clay pot and bucket hives (Nyatsande et al., 2014). This is due to their low cost, availability of construction materials, and the minimal technical skills needed to manage the hives. However, traditional hives come with challenges such as monitoring the bee colonies and low productivity (Nyatsande et al., 2014).

In 2023, about 50,000 beekeepers were reported to be established in Zimbabwe (Mambondiyani, 2023). However, there is no available data on the distribution of these beekeepers. The Agritex report of 2014, showed that there are 15,966 beekeepers in Zimbabwe and a total of 85,794 beehives (Mwandifura et al., 2021). Fig. 4 shows the distribution of beekeepers for each of the provinces, except Harare and Bulawayo whose information was not recorded. The majority of beekeepers are in the Midlands province (47%), likely because this is where beekeeping extension started in Zimbabwe. Matabeleland South has the fewest beekeepers (only 24), which is just 0.2% of total beekeepers in the country. The beekeeping industry is not very favorable in this province since it falls in agro-ecological zone V, where there is very little rainfall, reducing the availability of bee forage (Nyatsande et al., 2014).

Fig. 4.

Distribution of Zimbabwe beekeepers per province by the year 2014. Map created by Bianza Mbavha, using data extracted from Nyatsande et al. (2014).

The distribution of beehives across different provinces in Zimbabwe is shown in Table 1, adapted from Mwandifura et al. (2021) based on Agritex records from 2014. The highest number of beehives are in the Midlands Province (47%), although the majority are traditional hives due to the high prevalence of the big indigenous tree Brachystegia spp. Matabeleland South, which has the lowest number of beekeepers consequently has the fewest beehives, with only 183 hives (Mwandifura et al., 2021). Traditional beehives are the most commonly used hives in Zimbabwe (78%). Of all the beehives present in Zimbabwe, only 2.6% are Langstroth hives, making them the least used hives in the country, despite their high productivity and superior honey quality. This is due to the high cost associated with its acquisition and materials needed for it, as well as the very limited financial support available to fund beekeepers (Nyatsande et al., 2014).

Table 1.

Composition of the types (Traditional, Kenya top bar and Langstroth hives) and number of beehives according to provinces in Zimbabwe (Mwandifura et al., 2021).

1. Honey

Honey is one of the main products of honey bees and is highly sought after by beekeepers. There are over 300 types of honey in the world, differing in appearance, taste, and composition depending on their botanical and geographical origins. The global honey production is 1.72 million metric tons per year, with China being the largest honey-producing country, contributing 29% of the total honey production (Oravecz et al., 2020; Puranik, et al., 2023). In Zimbabwe, honey production is low due to the widespread use of traditional hives that produce low quantities of honey (Nyatsande et al., 2014; Mwandifura et al., 2021). Approximately 69,730 kg of honey is produced per year, and the distribution across provinces is shown in Fig. 5. The highest amounts of honey are produced in Mashonaland West province, likely due to its high number of Langstroth hives, which produce large quantities of honey. Matabeleland South, which has the fewest beehives, is also the smallest producer of honey. The honey produced in Zimbabwe is mainly used by the cosmetics industry in hair and beauty products, in the confectionary industry (e.g. Willards Foods and Crystals Sweets), and the pharmaceutical industry such as the Zimbabwe Pharmaceuticals (Mwandifura et al., 2021). Zimbabwe’s honey production cannot meet the country’s demand, leading to the importation of 70% of the honey from South Africa and China. Annual honey production in Zimbabwe has the potential to reach 427 metric tons (Nyatsande et al., 2014), given the highly diversified natural flora in Zimbabwe which is favorable for apiculture (Mwandifura et al., 2022a). If more beekeepers are trained and the number of bee colonies in the country increases, honey production levels will rise and the honey shortfall will be met (Mwandifura et al., 2021). Honey can also be value added; for example, it can be infused with ginger or cinnamon to increase its health benefits. In the Chipinge district, honey is infused with ginger and sold at a higher price (Mwandifura et al., 2021). The Sweet Maungwe company in Zimbabwe also infuses honey with ginger and cinnamon, resulting in higher economic value than ordinary honey.

Fig. 5.

Zimbabwe’s annual honey production by province, reported in 2014 (Nyatsande et al., 2014).

2. Other honey bee products

Other products produced by honey bees include wax, propolis, venom, honeycomb and royal jelly. Royal jelly is highly nutritious and is used as a dietary supplement, as well as in skin and hair care. Beeswax is commonly used in the candle making industry and cosmetics. It has also been shown to have antimicrobial, antifungal and antioxidant properties (Papa et al., 2022). Bee propolis, also called bee glue, is known for its antimicrobial properties and is a common ingredient in some dental care products. Bee venom contains peptides with anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties and can be used to treat arthritis and other joint-related diseases. The diverse use of honey bee products facilitates the expansion of manufacturing industries in Zimbabwe and can increase income generation for many smallholder farmers. Exporting these products can also generate foreign currency for Zimbabwe and boost the country’s economy. However, there is no available published or reported data on quantities of these honey bee products being produced in Zimbabwe.

3. Crop pollination

Honey bees make a crucial contribution to the economy of Zimbabwe through their pollination services. They are capable of pollinating a wide range of crops such as almonds, coffee, cocoa and soybeans, thereby improving the quality and quantity of these crops (Degrandi-Hoffman et al., 2019; Khalifa et al., 2021). The Apis mellifera, which is the common honey bee in Zimbabwe has been shown to have the highest contribution to crop pollination (Hung et al., 2018b; Sillman et al., 2021). In the United States, the pollination contribution of the honey bee is valued at approximately USD 11.68 billion (Khalifa et al., 2021). Since Zimbabwe heavily depends on agriculture to boost its economy, honey bees can significantly benefit the country by increasing agricultural yields. With the expanding human population in Zimbabwe and the ever-increasing demand for food security, beekeeping could serve as the perfect opportunity to enhance food security. Research conducted in the Chipinge district of Zimbabwe (Mwandifura et al., 2021) showed that farmers engaged in macadamia nut production who have beehives in their plots had a 30% higher yield compared to farmers without beehives. The same study also showed that honey bees could increase the yield of maize by 24%, sorghum 28%, mangoes 18% and peaches by 23%. These results indicate that beekeeping can promote food security if honey bee pollination services are fully utilized in Zimbabwe.

4. Honey bee species

Globally, bee species (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) are estimated to total 20,000 (Zattara and Aizen, 2021). Apidae is the largest family within the superfamily Apoidea, containing many species of bees including honey bees of Apis genus. A. mellifera and A. cerana are the most important and most domesticated honey bee species in the world due to their high honey production and highly effective pollination (Li et al., 2019). A. cerana is an Asian bee that is approximately 10~11 mm, has better hygiene awareness and is generally docile and gentle (Katuwal et al., 2023). On the other hand, A. mellifera produces larger quantities of honey but is less disease resistant compared to A. cerana (Wang and Tan, 2014; Park et al., 2015; Katuwal et al., 2023). Since the 1700s, several honey bee species have been identified in Zimbabwe such as A. andreniformis, A. cerana, A. dorsata, A. florea, A. laboriosa, A. vechti and A. mellifera, with the most common species being A. mellifera. The subspecies of A. mellifera that are geographically distributed in Zimbabwe are A. mellifera scutellata and A. mellifera adansonii (Chakuya et al., 2022a). These species are common in the Eastern, Western and Southern parts of Africa. Due to the close similarities among honey bees, differentiating each race is critical and requires molecular characterization. A. mellifera scutellata, also known as the East African bee, has a small and slender body with an intense yellow color, while A. mellifera adansonii has a medium sized body with yellow markings. Both subtypes are strongly aggressive and have a great urge to swarm and abscond but A. mellifera scutellata is more commonly used due to its ability to produce more honey (Chakuya et al., 2022a). These two subspecies have stings that have the potential to kill animals (Djoko et al., 2023), such as humans (Fletcher, 1978), waterbucks (Barnes et al., 2005), and goats (Karidozo and Osborn, 2005). Therefore, proper care and appropriate protective clothing should be used when handling these bee subspecies.

1. Pests and diseases

Pests and diseases are among the greatest threats to the beekeeping industry, resulting in the destruction of bee colonies. Several pests and diseases affect bee colonies, such as Varroa mites (Varroa destructor), wax moths (Galleria mellonella and Achroia grisella), small hive beetles (Aethina tumida), American foulbrood, European foulbrood, and chalkbrood (Ebeling et al., 2022). Varroa mites are among the most damaging honey bee pests in the world, causing malfunction and weakening of bee colonies. They were first discovered in Cape Town, South Africa in 1997 (Allsopp, 1997), and in 2002 they were found close to the borders of Botswana, Swaziland and Mozambique, and were already reported in Zimbabwe (Allsopp, 2004; Dietemann et al., 2009).

Controlling these pests and diseases within the hive is essential to maintain healthy and productive colonies. In Zimbabwe, information on honey bee pests and diseases is very scant due to inadequate recording and publishing. However, some confirmed cases of Varroa mites were recorded in 2006 in areas such as Chiredzi, Beitbridge, Chipinge, Masvingo, Bulawayo, Nyanga, Shangani and Gweru. Other diseases of huge economic significance such as the American foulbrood and European foulbrood have not yet been reported in Zimbabwe (Nyatsande et al., 2014). Another study conducted in the Manicaland Province reported the presence of ants, honey beetles, honey badgers, spiders and birds feeding on bees and bee products (Mwandifura et al., 2023). It is important to conduct research and surveillance on pests and diseases in Zimbabwe as well as collect and publish information that can be easily accessed by other beekeepers, thereby adding to the knowledge of the beekeeping industry within the country. One of the best ways to avoid or minimize pests and diseases in the hive is to maintain good hygiene, keeping all the equipment and the apiary clean. It is also important to regularly inspect and monitor the hives to identify any diseases and pests at an early stage before they spread throughout the colonies.

2. Agrochemicals

Agricultural chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides have a significant impact on the beekeeping industry. These chemicals can drift into beehives, contaminating the nectar, pollen and also water sources for the bees and may also contaminate the honey and wax. Some chemicals are highly toxic and can affect bee health and development, potentially leading to colony loss. Bees may ingest contaminants orally during foraging, and the pollutants can end up in stored foods, such as honey, pollen, royal jelly or propolis. A study conducted in Nyamakate Communal Area, the northern part of Zimbabwe showed that beekeeping in this area is greatly affected by the use of toxic agrochemicals, resulting in the mortality of bee populations (Chakuya et al., 2022b).

3. Limited access to resources and support

Another challenge in Zimbabwe is the limited access to modern beekeeping hives and equipment due to high cost. Most beekeepers in Zimbabwe are still using the old traditional hives because they are affordable. However, traditional beehives are less efficient, produce low quantities of honey and do not allow regular inspection of the hives. Honey quality is also poor due to the old and outdated equipment used for honey extraction (Mwandifura et al., 2021). The Langstroth hive costs approximately USD 200 (without start-up kit), which explains why its adoption in the country has remained very low (Mwandifura et al., 2023). Another challenge is the lack of financial support for beekeepers, making it difficult for them to invest and grow their businesses. There is very little support from the government to increase honey production in the country and very few organizations provide financial support to the beekeeping industry. There is also insufficient and inconsistent training and extension services to equip beekeepers with the necessary skills and modern beekeeping practices used in developed countries. Without the relevant and improved skills, honey quality and quantity will remain low and Zimbabwe will not be able to meet the honey demands of its growing population. Since 70% of the honey consumed in Zimbabwe is imported (Mwandifura et al., 2021), there is need to improve beekeeping management practices within the country to increase honey production.

4. Adulteration

Adulteration is the intentional or fraudulent replacement or addition of a substance to increase the apparent value of a product or reduce its cost of production (Chirsanova et al., 2021). Honey adulteration is a major cause of concern worldwide, especially in developing countries which do not have strict polices and regulations. Honey adulteration involves adding sugar or corn syrup to the honey, diluting it with water, or mixing it with other sweeteners such as glucose and fructose. This affects the aroma, flavor and texture of the honey, thereby reducing its nutritional value and health benefits. It can even pose health risks since the adulteration may affect the shelf life of the honey. Over the past few years, the number of street vendors selling honey in Zimbabwe has increased, despite the number of beehives remaining stagnant in the country. Most of the honey sold on the streets is of unknown origin and it has been shown that much of it is adulterated (Mwandifura et al., 2022b). Therefore, there is a great need to educate beekeepers, traders, and consumers about the risks of honey adulteration and methods to identify adulterated honey. The government should also enforce strict regulations and quality control measures to make it difficult for adulterated honey to enter the market.